ÿWPC» .7#ײ¸á3&…-i5UÿÞd‘È¥U²Ê\²¢ûTtáó¯ni"{ì&÷Dê÷ÒB´Æ“¸ÐÑ”þ\ÊÄ…5¸”|ŽèâqöÕ=PÀ|uùõ¿ ¨Åñ  ñš×Oì²[ÈÜd Y¥nf§-¡ÅÐõË@y¡%Ž‹õÛÛF¥¯Ÿ……^<–#hÊ÷J…=Dãè}»2ŽW{³\E—ªö-T6ÄkÙ]þÛ¿¥šj³°,É£œCzT© ëÑfn줂¬óå› ¦Pi‡tWÒn%íØk“#Æо2âuÁ£R€O¤Uß>w¡6jŽÈ¦ #%¯Ìÿ5k5-ó¸×EK·V.ïç÷è)í‘ïZàO(¢çcΘᩄÜÁ*pÁ†­º‘å‡È ^g ðð’ìçT‰‚‰Çºê5È4? )ÑdßèE€_j°åEFì¤*߬J±žÍý–@]ãj?±lÆH4}é‘zíQÎñY±€åg<(‰2ãÐ0DÙÅ[Rêêù£e0¹ ÒÊUC×ÀØŽcá‚è×f¤îþõfüû®€Í€Þ¬6ði×XØmך¨6~ŽüYÓ‘¿(jÚÙúÍÃö?63Ïr5§O8Ú\ ×5‹ÏNÑ[³98ÏkSjçó #!¶UN× %% 0:+^ ewq4u‰˜ mš±N¹˜HP LaserJet 4L,ü,,,,,ü0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(üœ$¡¡ÔUSUS.,ÔZ‘E+{ j®“-lœ¤3|xÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ Ý ƒüœ!ÝÔUSUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑÜ°ÑÑÜ°ÑÒÜ°ÒÒÜ°ÒÓÓETEC€695à@DDìàThomas€Kuhn€Reaction€PaperˆÐ Ü ÐTerry€S.€Toney€ÌKuhn,€T.S.€(1996).€òòThe€structure€of€scientific€revolutions€óó(3òòrdóó€ed.).€Chicago,€Illinois:Ð Œ ° ÐUniversity€of€Chicago.ÌÌà 4 àI€€cannot€fault€the€reasoning€behind€Thomas€Kuhnððs€book„€òòThe€Structure€ofÐ 8  ÐScientific€Revolutionóó.€€It€is€easy€to€see€how€paradigms€structure€scientific€and€even€socialÐ ì  Ðactivities.€It€is€also€easy€to€extrapolate€how€they€have€the€such€an€unseen,€but€enormousÏability€to€blind€us€and€lead€us€without€our€knowledge€away€from€explorations€andÏdiscoveries.€€Historical€data€that€Kuhn€offers€in€his€book€seems€to€back€this€idea€up.€€InÏwhat€I€call€pre„scientific€history€€there€were€always€several€schools€of€thought€on€even€theÏmost€basic€scientific€inquiries,€with€each€school€exploring€and€making€inferences€that€theyÏfelt€were€valid€and€logical.€€This€division€of€thought€would€continue€until€one€school€ofÏthought€became€overwhelmingly€more€popular€or€more€palatable€than€the€others.ÌEventually€the€other€schools€of€thought€on€that€particular€subject€were€rendered€uselessÏand€trite.Ìà 4 à€€This€set€up€the€beginning€of€a€paradigm,€according€to€Kuhn.€€The€advent€of€aÏparadigm€led€to€a€more€rigid€structuring€of€that€scientific€field.€€Paradigms€provided€anÏinfrastructure€to€train€other€scientists€in€the€way€this€particular€new€paradigm€worked.€ÏParadigms€are€attractive€€because€they€are€mutually€exclusive€and€provide€a€structure€thatÏheretofore€was€unavailable€around€which€to€build€and€focus€scientific€knowledge.€€EvenÏliterature€can€be€effected€by€a€€paradigm.€€Paradigms€encourage€a€switch€from€generalÐ ”,¸&* ÐÔ_Ôliterature€about€a€subject€to€the€advent€of€€more€formal,€scholarly€tomes€and€journalsÏwhose€audience€is€not€the€average€man,€but€someone€who€was€raised€and€trained€in€thatÏparticular€paradigmððs€structure.€€Ìà 4 àParadigms€may€sound€like€they€are€bad€and€should€be€avoided€at€all€costs,€butÏthere€are€reasons€why€paradigms€are€so€attractive€to€people.€€It€is€easy€to€see€how€theÏacceptance€of€a€paradigm€managed€to€make,€in€some€situations,€scientific€study€moreÏefficient.€€€A€paradigm€meant€that€scientists€no€longer€had€to€reinvent€certain€ð ðbasicððÏprinciples€when€they€desired€to€study€a€particular€field.€€These€ð ðbasicsðð€had€already€beenÏaddressed€and€the€parameters€of€logic€concerning€that€field€of€study€were€already€in€place.ÏThe€scientist€was€then€ð ðfreeðð€to€extend€his€study€into€more€advanced€areas.€€Areas€€thatÏalready€matched€the€stated€dynamics€of€the€paradigm€of€his€field€of€interest.€€Indeed,Ïaccording€to€Kuhnððs€book,€the€acquisition€of€a€paradigm€and€itððs€related€structure€could€beÏconsidered€a€ð ðsign€of€maturityðð€in€any€given€scientific€field.Ìà 4 àAs€a€future€educational€technology€professional,€the€idea€of€a€€paradigm€that€KuhnÏexpounded€on€are€of€particular€interest€to€me.€€In€my€opinion,€there€is€no€paradigm€moreÏenduring€or€strictly€adhered€to€as€the€paradigms€of€American€elementary€and€secondaryÏeducation.€€€€Technology€in€the€classroom€,€depending€upon€the€proponent€questioned,€canÏbe€either€an€exciting€new€addition€to€the€educational€arsenal€or€€a€threat€to€the€basicÏpremises€of€education€as€we€perceive€it.€€Ìà 4 àAs€a€futurist,€I€feel€that€technology€should€be€viewed€as€a€natural€extension€of€theÏtextbook,€pencil€and€spiral€bound€notebook.€€It€should€at€once€be€both€stimulating€and€Ïcommon.€€It€should€be€viewed€to€student,€parent,€administrator€and€teacher€alike€as€Ô_ÔaÐ ”,¸&* Ðnecessary€classroom€tool€in€the€same€way€the€blackboard€or€a€desk€is€viewed.€€Ìà 4 àUnfortunately,€I€must€admit€that€educational€technology€usage€is€not€seen€as€aÏnatural€and€logical€extension€in€current€curricula.€€Nationwide€there€is€an€under€utilizationÏof€technology€in€the€classroom.€€Why€is€this€happening?€€Why€is€there,€for€want€of€a€betterÏanalogy,€€a€sort€of€passive„aggressive€defensiveness€concerning€technology€usage€in€theÏclassroom€?€€à Œ àÐ 8  Ðà 4 àPerhaps€the€answer€lies€in€Thomas€Kuhnððs€definition€of€a€paradigm€and€itððs€role€inÏgoverning€and€structuring€thought.€€€The€enduring€educational€paradigms€that€have€been€inÏplace€for€more€than€a€hundred€years€now€are€not€difficult€to€identify€but€they€are€difficultÏto€overcome.€€Revolutions€to€established€paradigms€are€always€difficult,€but€to€reformÏeducation,€to€revolutionize€those€paradigms€that€have€been€in€place€for€so€long€haveÏproven€to€be€almost€impossible€to€accomplish€in€the€past.Ìà 4 àI€cannot€imagine€anywhere€in€our€society€that€paradigms€are€so€entrenched€andÏenduring€as€the€ones€that€are€in€our€educational€system.€€The€educational€paradigm€isÏperhaps€so€firmly€entrenched€in€the€minds€of€both€teachers,€administrators€and€the€publicÏbecause€the€influence€of€educational€paradigms€are€begun€much€earlier€than€most€otherÏparadigms.€€Paradigms€normally€become€entrenched€in€a€personððs€or€groupððs€mind€near€orÏat€adulthood,€when€they€begin€formal€study€in€a€particular€field.€€This€is€not€true€ofÏeducational€paradigms.€€Ìà 4 àWhenever€a€kindergartner€enters€his€classroom€for€the€first€time,€he€is€exposed€andÏbegins€to€absorb€the€paradigms€that€education€is€famous€for.€€He€must€learn€to€sit€andÏconcentrate€for€long€periods€of€time€and€even€social€time€is€structured€to€enhance€hisÐ ”,¸&* ÐÔ_Ôattention€level€and€his€conformity€to€classroom€rules€and€behavior.€€Students€areÏindoctrinated€to€the€educational€paradigm€at€the€tender€ages€of€five€or€six€years€of€age.€ÏTheir€exposure€to€the€idea€that€education€should€be€based.€upon€being€seated€quietly€andÏworking€endlessly€with€pencil,€paper€or€crayon€to€prove€mastery€of€concepts€becomesÏentrenched€in€their€psyches€at€an€exceptionally€early€age.€€Ìà 4 àThe€parameters€of€€educational€paradigms€are€strict,€in€certain€cases€unyielding€andÏcan€be€easily€identified€by€anyone€who€has€spent€any€time€in€a€classroom.€For€otherÏspecialties,€the€indoctrination€to€a€paradigm€comes€later€and€although€it€undoubtably€canÏbe€extremely€influencing€on€the€paradigm€members,€none€have€the€years€of€emphasis€andÏexposure€that€an€educational€paradigm€has€over€its€members.€€Ìà 4 àIs€it€any€wonder€then€that€educational€paradigms€are€so€entrenched€in€the€heartsÏand€minds€of€administrators,€teachers€and€even€parents€and€students?€€Most€people€wouldÏbe€at€a€loss€to€describe€the€typical€day€or€type€of€work€of€a€practicing€physicist,€but€askÏanyone€what€a€ð ðtypicalðð€teacherððs€day€is€like€and€their€replies€probably€would€beÏalarmingly€similar.€€Kuhn€mentions€in€his€book€that€a€paradigm€restricts€free€thinking€andÏexploration.€I€feel€that€this€unprecedented€early€and€enduring€exposure€to€what€Kuhn€callsÏa€paradigm€restricts€the€types€and€frequency€of€ð ðeducational€revolutionsðð€to€a€much€higherÏdegree€than€in€any€other€specialty€or€field€of€study.Ìà 4 àWhen€an€existing€paradigm€breaks€down,€Kuhn€calls€this€a€ð ðrevolutionðð.€€TheseÏð ðrevolutionsðð€occur€because€there€is€a€sufficiently€large€number€of€followers€who€feelÏcomfortable€enough€to€switch€from€the€accepted€paradigm€to€the€new€idea€or€in€KuhnððsÏvocabulary,€the€new€paradigm.€€This€is€one€of€the€ideas€that€Kuhn€espouses€that€gives€meÐ ”,¸&* Ðhope€concerning€the€future€of€American€elementary€and€secondary€education.Ìà 4 à€€€Kuhn€states€in€Part€Three€of€his€book€that€in€the€development€of€a€naturalÏscience,€when€a€group€first€produces€a€synthesis€that€is€more€attractive€to€the€nextÏgenerationððs€practitioners,€older€schools€of€thought€eventually€disappear.€€Anyone€whoÏhas€spent€time€in€any€teacherððs€lounge€will€agree€with€this.€€Many€older€teachers,€inflexibleÏin€their€advanced€years€in€education€and€well€padded€and€insulated€within€their€educationalÏparadigms,€refuse€to€support€or€fully€utilize€technology€in€the€classroom.€€Imagine€the€highÏschool€English€teacher€who€feels€€that€a€student€who€completes€a€rough€draft€for€an€essayÏon€a€computer,€rather€than€with€pencil€and€paper,€is€ð ðcheatingðð.€€Ìà 4 àThis€is€somewhat€a€touchy€point€for€me,€since€with€fifteen€years€of€teachingÏexperience,€I€am€now€considered€one€of€the€ð ðolderðð€teachers.€€Even€I€find€myself€seekingÏcomfort€in€the€strictures€and€guidelines€of€our€educational€paradigms€more€often€thanÏwhen€I€was€younger.€€It€is€a€constant€struggle€to€think€ð ðoutside€the€boxðð.€€I€find€KuhnððsÏanalogy€of€how€new€paradigms€take€over€encouraging€though.€€Universities€and€collegesÏare€doing€their€part€to€prepare€new€teachers€to€utilize€technology€as€just€another€weaponÏin€their€arsenal€against€illiteracy.€€When€it€is€accepted€in€that€way,€rather€than€simply€a€newÏstrategy€that€is€being€pushed€along€to€ð ðredesignðð€education,€there€is€a€much€better€chanceÏthat€technology€will€truly€become€a€ð ðrevolutionðð€in€the€classroom.Ìà 4 àThroughout€the€years,€there€has€been€much€hype€placed€on€ð ðreinventingðð,Ïð ðredesigningðð€ð ðreformingðð€and€ð ðrevolutionizingðð€education€in€America.€€None€of€it,€to€myÏknowledge,€ever€seemed€to€work€very€well.€€I€think€Kuhn€hinted€at€why€educationalÏreform€has€never€worked.€€Kuhn€stated€early€in€his€book€that€ð ðscientific€revolutionsðð€areÐ ”,¸&* Ðseldom€an€increment€or€an€adjustment€to€an€already€accepted€practice.€€A€revolutionÏintrinsically€means€that€prior€facts€and€pedagogy€must€be€completely€reexamined€andÏreconstructed.€€This€is€by€nature€a€long,€complex€task€and€rarely€if€ever€completed€by€oneÏperson€or€group€in€a€short€period€of€time.€€Ideally,€a€revolutionððs€starting€point€and€evenÏending€point,€as€I€understand€it,€should€be€difficult€to€determine.Ìà 4 àIn€education,€quick€fixes€to€perceived€flaws€have€always€been€the€norm.€€OneÏperson€or€a€group€suddenly€vocalize€a€new€technique€or€curricula.€€It€is€then€€hailedÏimmediately€as€a€savior€to€all€of€educationððs€woes€and€the€idea€is€snatched€up€at€theÏhighest€levels€and€shoved€willy„nilly€into€classrooms€across€the€nation.€€In€a€few€years,Ïanother€new€pedagogy€is€hailed€as€an€answer€and€the€process€begins€anew.€€Since€theseÏð ðnewðð€ideas€are€actually€nothing€but€incremental€changes€and€adjustments€to€alreadyÏperceived€paradigms,€no€educational€reform€or€revolution€has€actually€ever€occurred.€ÏThere€is€little€doubt€that€hastily€mandated€teaching€techniques€do€not€work.€€EducationalÏrevolutions€have€not€occurred,€just€minor€shifts€in€the€educational€paradigms.Ìà 4 àI€think€technology€in€the€classroom€will€eventually€be€hailed€as€a€true€educationalÏreform.€€Technology€coordinators€are€spending€vast€amounts€of€time€and€vast€amounts€ofÏfederal€dollars€to€place€technology€in€the€classroom.€€Colleges€and€universities€areÏproviding€instruction€in€teacher€education€classes€on€the€benefits€and€pitfalls€of€classroomÏtechnology.€€Ideas€and€thoughts€are€changing€slowly.€€Certainly,€younger€teachingÏpractitioners€are€finding€ways€to€use€classroom€technology€efficiently,€while€the€olderÏteachers€who€are€uncomfortable€with€the€new€paradigm€shifts€still€sit€in€the€teacherððsÏlounge€and€count€the€days€until€retirement.€€Ð ”,¸&* Ðà 4 àBut€perhaps€the€most€telling€and€persuasive€argument€I€can€offer€for€suggestingÏthat€technology€in€the€classroom€is€truly€starting€a€revolution€harks€back€to€thatÏkindergartner€I€mentioned€previously.€€His€early€indoctrination€to€the€influences€of€theÏeducational€paradigm€is€still€occurring,€however,€now,€along€with€the€sitting€still,Ïcompleting€worksheets€and€learning€his€alphabet,€he€can€look€forward€to€a€classroom€withÏInternet€hookups,€virtual€field€trips€and€the€use€of€technology€that€is€as€integrated€andÏuseful€as€a€pencil€or€crayon.€€This€encourages€me€that€we€are€truly€revolutionizingÏeducation€with€the€use€of€technology.€€It€is€both€gratifying€and€terrifying€to€be€at€the€edgeÏof€an€educational€paradigm€shift€but€as€an€Educational€Technology€student€planning€onÏassuming€a€leadership€role€in€the€near€future,€as€uncomfortable€as€it€feels,€this€is€exactlyÏwhere€I€need€to€be.€Ìà 4 àAlthough€I€cannot€honestly€say€that€I€enjoyed€reading€Kuhn,€I€can€honestly€sayÏthat€until€reading€his€works,€I€had€never€been€able€to€pinpoint€why€so„called€educationalÏreforms€always€seemed€fail€in€the€long€run.€€Kuhnððs€explanation€of€paradigms€and€theirÏinfluence€on€our€culture€helped€me€focus€in€on€specific€reasons€why€education€in€particularÏis€so€very€resistant€to€change.€€It€also€helped€me€realize€why€past€ð ðeducational€reformÏmeasuresðð€were€never€really€reform€measures€at€all€and€as€such,€were€doomed€to€failure€atÏthe€very€onset.